Santa Muerte
The cultural phenomenon of Santa Muerte has grown significantly across the continent. Recently, a shrine dedicated to Santa Muerte was found in El Salvador during a bar raid. Another case occurred in Guatemala, where an altar to Santa Muerte was discovered, and it’s becoming increasingly common to find such altars in various locations in the United States. Santa Muerte is a controversial figure, with many of her devotees reportedly being linked to criminal groups, although thousands of non-criminals also venerate her.
While the Santa Muerte cult is popular in central Mexico, in recent years, it has been spreading more across Latin America. It is estimated that this religion has nearly 12 million followers in countries such as Mexico, the United States, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Thus, this devotion and its esoteric beliefs are becoming increasingly common.
Moreover, the rise in the popularity of Santa Muerte has been attributed to the cultural exchange resulting from the sometimes overestimated presence of Mexican cartels in Latin America. These cartels often place figures of her, whether sitting on a throne or standing with her scythe; the female skeleton figure is regarded by her devotees as both cursed and benevolent, a giver of protection, and a key figure in the transition from life to death.
Additionally, countries like El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras have been dominated by gangs like Mara Salvatrucha and Barrio 18 for years. These gangs have controlled extortion and illicit trafficking and have killed those who violated their laws.
Santa Muerte, also known as Our Lady of Holy Death or the White Girl, has been found as far north as Canada and as far south as Chile, including in Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil, where she is becoming more popular, according to Andrew Chesnut from Virginia Commonwealth University. This is a peculiar phenomenon given that 40 percent of the Latin American population is Catholic, and Mexico is the second country with the largest number of devotees, only after Brazil.
The increase in Santa Muerte devotees is also attributed to the fact that the Catholic Church has lost members over the past 20 years; for example, in Mexico, about 77 percent of the population adheres to that religion.
However, despite the significant growth, the Santa Muerte cult has not been able to form a religious group or gain legal recognition since 2005. Nonetheless, in El Salvador, the cult has more presence due to the emergency regime that seeks to eradicate gangs from neighborhoods, where over 90,000 people have been captured under this measure. Despite this, there are possible criminal gangs whose figure of devotion is Santa Muerte.
What is the cult about?
Santa Muerte, often referred to as Nuestra Señora de la Santa Muerte (Spanish for “Our Lady of Holy Death”), is a figure revered in a new religious movement and folk-Catholicism, particularly within Mexican culture. She is a female deity and folk saint, embodying the personification of death. Her devotees associate her with healing, protection, and guiding souls safely to the afterlife. Despite opposition from the Catholic Church and Evangelical pastors, her following has grown significantly since the early 21st century.
Typically depicted as a skeletal woman draped in a long robe, Santa Muerte is often shown holding a scythe and a globe. The color of her robe can vary, with different hues representing various petitions and rituals performed by her followers.
Santa Muerte’s modern-day veneration was first observed in Mexico by American anthropologists in the 1940s, though it remained a largely occult practice until the early 2000s. Most rituals and prayers were traditionally conducted in private homes. However, the worship of Santa Muerte became more public after 2001, when Enriqueta Romero established a well-known shrine to her in Mexico City. Since then, the number of her devotees has expanded to approximately 12 million, primarily located in Mexico, Central America, and the United States, with smaller groups in Canada and Europe.
Santa Muerte also has two similar male counterparts in Latin America: San La Muerte in Argentina and Paraguay, and Rey Pascual in Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico. According to R. Andrew Chesnut, a scholar of Latin American religious studies, Santa Muerte is central to one of the fastest-growing new religious movements worldwide.
Santa Muerte’s name translates to “Saint Death” or “Holy Death” in English. However, some scholars, like Chesnut, argue that “Saint Death” more accurately reflects her identity as a folk saint. She is also known by many other names, including La Flaquita (“The Skinny Lady”), La Niña Blanca (“The White Girl”), and La Dama Poderosa (“The Powerful Lady”), among others. These names reflect her diverse roles and the personal relationships her devotees feel with her.
Historical background
The origins of Santa Muerte can be traced back to Mesoamerican religion, specifically the Aztec goddess of death, Mictēcacihuātl. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the worship of death diminished but was never fully eradicated. According to research by Judith Katia Perdigón Castañeda, references to Santa Muerte date back to 18th-century Mexico. One account, documented by the Spanish Inquisition, describes how Chichimecs in central Mexico tied up a skeletal figure called “Santa Muerte” and threatened it with lashings if it didn’t grant their wishes.
The syncretism of pre-Columbian and Christian beliefs is also evident in the Day of the Dead celebrations, where Mexicans honor deceased loved ones by visiting cemeteries and offering prayers. Children participate by consuming skull-shaped candies. Researchers like Perdigón Castañeda, Thompson, Kingsbury, and Chesnut argue that Santa Muerte’s origins are deeply rooted in Indigenous traditions, contrary to the views of scholars like Malvido and Lomnitz, who suggest otherwise. Ethnoarchaeological research and archival work have established clear links between the worship of pre-Columbian death deities and the veneration of Santa Muerte.
Unlike the public celebrations of the Day of the Dead, the veneration of Santa Muerte remained largely underground until the early 2000s. When it did emerge, it was met with harsh reactions, including the desecration of shrines. In the early 20th century, artist José Guadalupe Posada created a similar figure known as La Catrina, a female skeleton dressed in fancy attire. Posada’s work highlighted the idea that death is a great equalizer in society.
In modern times, Posada’s depiction of La Catrina has been embraced by artists like Diego Rivera, whose mural *Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in the Alameda Central* features the figure. Over time, the skeletal imagery associated with death in Mexican culture has become commercialized, losing some of its original political message in favor of appealing to tourists.
Santa Muerte in modern times
The worship of Santa Muerte was first documented in the 1940s in working-class neighborhoods of Mexico City, such as Tepito. Today, she is venerated across Mexico, the United States, and Central America. The New Religious Movement of Santa Muerte gained widespread attention in August 1998 when police discovered a shrine to her in the home of notorious gangster Daniel Arizmendi López, reinforcing her association with criminality in the popular consciousness.
Since 2001, belief in Santa Muerte has seen explosive growth, driven by her reputation for granting miracles. The number of her devotees has grown to approximately 12 million, with the majority concentrated in Mexico, the US, and Central America. By the late 2000s, Santa Muerte had become Mexico’s second-most popular saint, following Saint Jude, and was seen as a rival to the Virgin of Guadalupe, the country’s national patroness.
The rapid rise of Santa Muerte’s following has sparked significant controversy. In March 2009, the Mexican army demolished 40 roadside shrines dedicated to her near the U.S. border. Around 2005, the movement spread to the United States, brought by Mexican and Central American immigrants, and by 2012, it had tens of thousands of followers, primarily in cities with large Mexican-American populations.
As of 2016-2017, devotion to Santa Muerte is considered one of the fastest-growing new religious movements in the world, with an estimated 12 million followers. The COVID-19 pandemic further fueled the movement’s growth, as many believers turned to Santa Muerte for protection against the virus.
Attributes and iconography of Santa Muerte
Santa Muerte is a personification of death, distinct from other Latin American folk saints, as she is not seen as a deceased human but rather as a symbolic figure associated with death, healing, protection, financial well-being, and guidance to the afterlife.
Unlike other death saints in Latin America, such as San La Muerte, Santa Muerte is the only female death saint in the Americas. Iconographically, she is typically depicted as a skeletal figure dressed in female clothing or a shroud, often holding a scythe and a globe. Her femininity is signified not by her skeletal form but by her attire and hair, a feature introduced by Enriqueta Romero, a prominent believer.
The scythe and globe are the most common symbols associated with Santa Muerte. The scythe, reminiscent of the Grim Reaper (La Parca) from medieval Spain, symbolizes death’s power, the cutting of life’s thread, and the potential for cutting away negative influences. It also represents hope and prosperity as a harvesting tool, with its long handle signifying the reach of death. The globe represents her dominion over the earth and can be seen as a metaphor for the tomb to which all return.
Additional symbols include scales, an hourglass, an owl, and an oil lamp. The scales symbolize justice, equity, and divine will, while the hourglass represents the passage of time and the idea that death is not final, as time can be reset. The owl, connected to Mesoamerican death deities like Mictlantecuhtli, symbolizes wisdom and the ability to navigate the darkness, while the oil lamp represents enlightenment and spiritual guidance.
Artists, especially Mexican-American ones, often use Santa Muerte’s imagery in their work. One of the most controversial depictions is the fusion of Santa Muerte with the Virgin of Guadalupe, known as “GuadaMuerte.” This image portrays Santa Muerte dressed in the traditional blue veil and red dress of the Virgin of Guadalupe, with a fiery yellow halo, often in a praying pose. This fusion has sparked significant controversy, upsetting many in the Catholic Church and even within the Santa Muerte community, as it conflates two distinct figures with different practices and meanings.
Rituals associated with Santa Muerte
Rituals dedicated to Santa Muerte often involve processions and prayers intended to secure a miracle. While some of her devotees remain connected to the Catholic Church, others have severed those ties to establish independent Santa Muerte churches and temples. Altars dedicated to her typically feature one or more images of the saint, surrounded by offerings such as cigarettes, flowers, fruit, incense, water, alcoholic beverages, coins, candies, and candles. Tobacco is particularly significant, used both for personal cleansing and for purifying statues of Santa Muerte.
Santa Muerte is revered for her perceived miraculous powers. Her images are considered sacred, believed to grant miracles in response to the faith of her followers. Known as “Señora de la Noche” (Lady of the Night), she is often invoked by those facing the dangers of night work, such as taxi drivers, bar owners, police officers, soldiers, and sex workers. Devotees believe she offers protection against assaults, accidents, gun violence, and all forms of violent death.
Santa Muerte effigies are dressed differently based on the specific requests of her devotees. While her statues typically wear robes in various colors, they may also be dressed as a bride (for those seeking marriage) or in garments resembling those of medieval European nuns, echoing the attire of female Catholic saints. The colors of her votive candles and robes are closely associated with the type of petition being made.
– White symbolizes gratitude, purity, or the removal of negative influences.
– Red is for love, lust, and passion, and can also represent emotional stability.
– Gold signifies economic power, success, money, and prosperity.
– Green is associated with justice, legal matters, or family unity.
– Amber or dark yellow represents health, often seen in rehabilitation centers.
– Black is used for total protection against black magic or for directing negative magic against rivals.
– Blue candles and images are linked to wisdom, favored by students and educators.
– Brown is used to invoke spirits, while **purple** is commonly associated with health.
In recent times, black, purple, yellow, and white candles have been used to invoke Santa Muerte’s protection against and healing from COVID-19. Other colors like silver, transparent, and red with black have been adopted for specific petitions.
Devotees may also use a seven-color candle, combining gold, silver, copper, blue, purple, red, and green, which some researchers believe was inspired by Santería, an Afro-Cuban faith brought to Mexico by Cuban migrants. Each devotee personalizes their Santa Muerte image with items like U.S. dollars, gold coins, jewelry, and other offerings.
Although Santa Muerte does not have an official annual feast day, November 2 (Day of the Dead) is becoming the favored date for her celebration. Larger shrines and temples also hold annual celebrations on the anniversary of their founding. For instance, November 1 is the day when Enriqueta Romero celebrates at her renowned Tepito shrine, where the famous effigy is dressed as a bride. Some also celebrate her on August 15.
Places of worship
The veneration of Santa Muerte, once clandestine, is becoming more public. Rituals are commonly performed at home altars, but public shrines have been increasingly established across Mexico. One notable public shrine in Mexico City, located on Dr. Vertiz Street in Colonia Doctores, features statues of Jesús Malverde and Saint Jude alongside Santa Muerte. Another public shrine can be found in a small park on Matamoros Street near Paseo de la Reforma.
These shrines have also appeared in the back of stores and gas stations. As the veneration of Santa Muerte gains acceptance, stores specializing in religious articles (like botánicas) are stocking more items related to her worship. Some shops, even those in predominantly Catholic areas, now earn significant profits from Santa Muerte paraphernalia.
Notably, some individuals now identify as Santa Muerte priests or priestesses, like Jackeline Rodríguez in Monterrey, who runs a shop in Mercado Juárez alongside tarot readers, curanderos, herbal healers, and sorcerers.
Shrine of the Most Holy Death
The first public shrine dedicated to Santa Muerte, established in 2001 by Enriqueta Romero in Tepito, Mexico City, marked a turning point in her veneration. This life-sized statue, visible from the street, does not serve as a venue for Catholic masses or occult rituals, but rather as a place for people to pray and leave offerings. The statue is adorned with various garments depending on the season, with the Romero family changing the attire on the first Monday of every month. Surrounding the statue are numerous offerings, including flowers, fruits (especially apples), candles, toys, money, notes of gratitude, cigarettes, and alcoholic beverages.
Enriqueta Romero sees herself as the chaplain of the shrine, a role she inherited from her aunt, who began the family’s Santa Muerte devotion in 1962. The shrine is located at 12 Alfarería Street in Tepito, Colonia Morelos, and is considered by many to be the patron saint of Tepito. The site also houses a shop selling various items such as amulets, bracelets, medallions, books, images, and, most notably, votive candles.
On the first day of each month, Enriqueta Romero or an assistant leads prayers and recitations of the Santa Muerte rosary, a practice adapted from the Catholic rosary. The anniversary of the Tepito shrine is celebrated on November 1, with thousands of devotees gathering to pray and make offerings. The effigy is dressed as a bride, adorned with numerous pieces of gold jewelry given in gratitude for miracles or in hopes of receiving one.
The celebration officially begins at midnight on November 1, with thousands of faithful participating in the rosary. Marijuana smoke, rather than traditional incense, is used for purification. The festivities include food such as cake, chicken with mole, hot chocolate, coffee, and atole, accompanied by performances from mariachis and marimba bands.
Votive candles
Santa Muerte is a multifaceted saint, and her devotees invoke her for various reasons. In herbal shops and markets, a wide array of Santa Muerte paraphernalia is available, including votive candles featuring her image. The colors of these candles are central to devotion and ritual:
– White symbolizes gratitude and consecration.
– Red is for love, lust, and passion.
– Gold is used for monetary affairs.
– Green represents justice.
– Purple and yellow are associated with health.
– Black is linked to protection and vengeance.
The black candle, particularly, is associated with invoking Santa Muerte’s protection and vengeance. Although not commonly seen at public devotional sites, it is often kept and lit in the privacy of one’s home. It is favored by some drug traffickers, who use it to seek protection for their illicit activities. Despite its association with black magic and witchcraft, the black candle is also used for reversing spells and providing protection.
While the black candle is connected to the darker aspects of devotion, the red candle is often used in matters of the heart. Historically, Santa Muerte’s role as a love sorceress has been documented, with the red candle being used to attract lovers, secure relationships, or end bad ones. Rituals involving the red candle often require specific ingredients like red roses, rose water, and cinnamon to enhance their effectiveness.
The popularity of Santa Muerte continues to grow, with her veneration becoming increasingly accepted and visible in public spaces across Mexico and beyond.
Opposition and persecution
Santa Muerte statues alongside other items of Mexican veneration (Jesus, Mary) on sale at a shop on Broadway in downtown Los Angeles.
Since the mid-20th century and throughout the 21st century, the New Religious Movement of Santa Muerte and her followers have faced regular discrimination, ostracism, and social exclusion by both the Catholic Church and various evangelical-Pentecostal Protestant churches in Mexico and Central America.
The Catholic Church has strongly condemned the veneration of Santa Muerte in Mexico and Latin America, labeling it as blasphemous and satanic, and describing it as a “degeneration of religion.” When Pope Francis visited Mexico in 2016, he specifically denounced Santa Muerte, condemning her as a dangerous symbol associated with narco-culture and reinforcing the perception of Santa Muerte as a narco-saint.
Similarly, Protestant churches in Latin America have denounced the devotion to Santa Muerte as black magic and deception. Mexico’s Catholic Church has gone so far as to accuse her followers—many of whom were baptized as Catholics despite differing beliefs—of turning to devil-worship. While Catholic priests often warn parishioners that death is not a person but merely a stage of life, the Church stops short of labeling Santa Muerte’s devotees as heretics, instead accusing them of heterodoxy.
The Catholic Church’s condemnation also stems from the fact that many of Santa Muerte’s rites are modeled after Catholic liturgy. Some followers of Santa Muerte eventually break away from the Catholic Church, leading to conflicts over church buildings.
Despite ongoing efforts by the Catholic and Protestant churches to undermine devotion to Santa Muerte, along with the associated religious discrimination and accusations, the movement has experienced rapid growth across the Americas since the early 2000s. According to leading academic expert Andrew Chesnut, Santa Muerte is considered the fastest-growing new religious movement in the world.
